Considering this strategic role, a shale-specific logistics framework should be developed. If this strategy was adapted early, it would be verified that any change in logistics implications and partnership opportunities are diagnosed and followed in a schedule [34,35]. Traditional logistics practices are designed for conventional onshore development, whereas the requirement of road transportation for shale development makes it necessary to improve these logistics practices. If operators split the water supply chain from drilling services, they will have more control, as well as an optimized water footprint throughout the life cycle [34,35].

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Employing pioneer tools, systems, and logistics practiced by other industries can help control EHS exposure, boost operational performance, and reach cost-effectiveness. Several renowned operators in North America have already adopted these strategies with global perspectives. When shale plays are being discovered and developed, there could be a lack of sufficient infrastructure and logistics resources to fulfill the requirement of large-scale operation.

Also, there are always many operators working closely and collaboratively under the same state regulatory environment. Along with the competition for resources and the cost of developing the supply chain infrastructure, a positive collaboration in operators governs. Operators should actively seek potential synergies, such as share logistics management platform, share excess capacity, coordinate local supplier development, and cross-basin infrastructure development, as discussed before.

This manner is especially interesting in countries where the shale development foundation is the least developed [34,35]. Collaboration with other operators and regulators to lessen the intensity of the basin e. Christopher B. Smith, Rajiv S. The feasibility trials were performed with consultation of the Navy and its shipyards.

As will be discussed in the following sections, the NAVSEA approval of the concept involves a large suite of testing ranging from static testing to dynamic testing to corrosion testing on a single thickness. The ABS certification process is performed on all thicknesses and is used to qualify a friction stir processing process for production. The latter involves a smaller suite of tests, typically limited to static destructive testing and nondestructive examination NDE per existing friction stir welding qualification specifications.

Upon the request from Marinette Marine to seek NAVSEA approval of the use of friction stir processing for forming of aluminum for marine structural angles, girders, and frames, a summary report of the feasibility work was written and provided to the US Navy. As part of the report, a production approval of the concept was requested. This specification and its requirements formed the basis for the case study of the subject of this publication.

Given the requirements of the NAVSEA qualification requirements document, the testing was likely to involve the most expansive comparison between friction stir processing and welding , gas metal arc welding, and the base material properties versus any known publication to date. Since there was near term interest in implementation of the friction stir processed alternative approach, the case study was developed with this consideration. This had two significant implications:. An approach was taken to limit the approval to a subset of potential applications.

This is referred to as the initial approval. Additional testing was to be performed in the future to expand the approval to include additional application. The initial approval was limited to certain applications, with the following conditions: a. Single pass friction stir processing. Internal applications only, except for one external test case in order to develop some natural exposure corrosion data.

The majority of applications are applied internally to the ship superstructure. Any structural angles longer than the length of the plate would still be fabricated with the traditional GMAW approach, though the long-term objective will be obtained approval to use friction stir welding to create the splices in the flat condition, prior to forming. The proposed test methods were categorized into four different areas: a.

Category 1: Information already on hand. That is data exists from feasibility trials conducted during the initial feasibility state. Category 2: Additional information not already in hand but needed for approval prior to production. That is, data did not exist and was required prior to production for the subset of applications noted above. Category 3: Additional information needed for approval but will be provided at a later date not prior to production. Technical justification was provided to explain why there is a high probability that the remaining tests results would not have an adverse impact to the performance of the component.

Testing was to be performed, following completion of the Category 2 testing. That is data was not required prior to production and technical justification was not required. Testing would still be performed in the future, following completion of the Category 2 and 3 testing. With these considerations a test matrix was generated with various sample types and testing methods. The final objective was to be able to compare material and structural property data of the proposed approach versus the traditional approach gas metal arc welded assemblies. The test matrix included eight different sample types as indicated in Table 4.

The test sample types considered all of the initial approval application characteristics as noted in 1 above, e. The FSW spliced configuration was included in the case study for several reasons. Table 4. Summary of Different Sample Types. This was the most common additional characteristic or requirement of other structural angles not included in the list above. There was limited published technical data on response of FSW to the various test methods. This information will be valuable to the general use of FSW in the marine industry. Though FSW is a very similar process, confirmation of similar technical capability or results were important.

As a part of the case study, multiple test coupons were made for all sample types indicated in Table 4. The samples were all labeled with the sample type designation indicated in Table 4.

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In all, there were 19 different test methods include spare samples as indicated in Table 4. The testing category is also indicated in the middle column per the description above. There were also multiple samples of most test types for repeatability purposes, with the number of samples indicated in Table 4. Lastly, any special notes and the specification to which the testing was performed are indicated in the rightmost column. It is also noted that not all sample types were tested with all methods, since this was not practical. For example, formed samples were not subjected to macro transverse tensile testing.

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Although not indicated in the test matrix, a portion of the samples were also subject to NDE. This included the macro transverse tensile test samples and all of the full-length formed samples. In the modern era of aviation, safety is of paramount importance in aerospace manufacturing. There are several million components in a commercial jumbo aircraft such as the Boeing and the Airbus A Since commercial aircrafts are generally designed to operate for up to 30 years, failure of any critical component during service could end up in a catastrophic accident.

In the United States, the roles of the FAA include certification and production approval , air-worthiness of aircraft, certification of aircraft personnel, and other safety-related matters. Furthermore, ASC, introduced by the Society of Automotive Engineers and the European Association of Aerospace Industries, has been widely accepted as the standard for quality management in the aerospace industry. In terms of material testing, ASTM International currently has at least standards concerning the evaluation of materials, parts, and devices that are commonly used in the aerospace industry.

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In modern passenger aircrafts, aluminum alloys remain as the materials that make up most of the weight of an aircraft. Besides aluminum, other materials are composites, titanium, steel, and other miscellaneous materials. However, the trend changed recently, when newer aircrafts such as the Boeing Dreamliner and the Airbus A were introduced. The application of composite materials has been significantly increased, to the point that composites are now the main contributors to the overall weight of the aircraft.

This new trend of material change has been motivated primarily by weight reduction, which translates into improvement in performance, fuel efficiency, and flight range [14]. In materials science, the interrelationship between materials structure, properties, performance, and process is known as the materials science tetrahedron [7]. This explains how considerations are made when choosing a suitable material for an application.

For example, when a critical aircraft component is to be designed, it must have a set of requirements that need to be met, such as the intended service condition, reliability, expected service life, and allowable frequency of failure. Furthermore, it should be able to undergo the remaining life assessment to reduce or prevent unexpected failure during service. In finding a suitable material that meets these performances, a good understanding of the material structure and how it affects the properties of that material, such as strength, density, ductility, toughness, stiffness, corrosion resistance, fatigue, etc.

Finally, a suitable fabrication process must be chosen based on the required quality, accuracy, surface finish, production volume, and cost. The airframe of an aircraft is the mechanical structures that include wings, fuselage, and undercarriage. The wing is considered as the most important component as it is the one that provides lift to keep the aircraft airborne. A wing is structurally a beam that is consistently subjected under varying stresses and moments due to its own weight, flight maneuver, air turbulence, and stresses from the landing gear during landing and take-off.

Furthermore, the top and bottom surfaces of the wing are alternately subjected to compression and tension depending on whether the aircraft is airborne or taxiing. Due to the above service conditions, the wing must be strong, stiff, and fatigue-resistant.

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To achieve this design objective, different materials are often used at different locations on the wing, depending on their specific function. Traditionally, aluminum alloys and steel were used for the fabrication of wing components such as spars, ribs, and skins [15]. These metallic materials were used primarily because of their good yield strength, stiffness, and toughness. From an economic perspective, aluminum alloys and steel are cheap and numerous fabrication techniques are readily available because of the maturity of the processing technology.

The density of aluminum and its alloys is around 2. Because of their much lower densities, aluminum alloys are clearly the preferred choice of material for modern aerospace engineering. For example, aluminum alloys, such as the and series, have been used in the wing construction of the Airbus A [9]. Although the tensile strength of pure aluminum is generally lower than steel, alloying the aluminum with other elements such as zinc, magnesium, and copper, followed by subsequent heat treatment, produces aluminum alloy that has comparable strength to steel [8].

Furthermore, aluminum alloys have better resistance to corrosion compared to steel.

The design of an aircraft fuselage takes into consideration the pressurized cabin and the stresses acting on the body of the aircraft. The fuselage is a semimonocoque cylindrical structure, which means that the skin panels and the frame are both responsible for withstanding the stresses.