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The most important evidence of the role of the hippocampus in transferring long-term memories has been provided by subjects who had sustained damage to both hippocampi and could not keep things in their memories for more than a few moments. Information is transferred from short-term memory also known as working memory to long-term memory through the hippocampus, so named because its shape resembles the curved tail of a seahorse hippokampos in Greek.

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The hippocampus is a very old part of the cortex, evolutionarily, and is located in the inner fold of the temporal lobe. All of the pieces of information decoded in the various sensory areas of the cortex converge in the hippocampus, which then sends them back where they came from. The hippocampus is a bit like a sorting centre where these new sensations are compared with previously recorded ones.

When we remember new facts by repeating them or by employing various mnemonic devices , we are actually passing them through the hippocampus several times. The hippocampus keeps strengthening the associations among these new elements until, after a while, it no longer needs to do so. The cortex will have learned to associate these various properties itself to reconstruct what we call a memory.

But the hippocampus and the cortex are not the only structures involved in long-term memory and its various manifestations in the brain.

Funding for this site is provided by readers like you. Source: Collection of Carol Donner. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks. The main job of the amygdala is to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression [link].

The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones. For example, one researcher experimented with rats and the fear response Josselyn, Using Pavlovian conditioning, a neutral tone was paired with a foot shock to the rats. This produced a fear memory in the rats.

After being conditioned, each time they heard the tone, they would freeze a defense response in rats , indicating a memory for the impending shock. Then the researchers induced cell death in neurons in the lateral amygdala, which is the specific area of the brain responsible for fear memories. They found the fear memory faded became extinct. Because of its role in processing emotional information, the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory.

The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing. A Laser Beam. Find out why their work caused a media frenzy once it was published in Science. Another group of researchers also experimented with rats to learn how the hippocampus functions in memory processing [link].

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They created lesions in the hippocampi of the rats, and found that the rats demonstrated memory impairment on various tasks, such as object recognition and maze running. Another job of the hippocampus is to project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other connected memories. It also plays a part in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory.

Injury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative memories. One famous patient, known for years only as H. As a result, his declarative memory was significantly affected, and he could not form new semantic knowledge. He lost the ability to form new memories, yet he could still remember information and events that had occurred prior to the surgery.

For a closer look at how memory works, as well as how researchers are now studying H. Although the hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for explicit memories, you could still lose it and be able to create implicit memories procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning , thanks to your cerebellum [link]. For example, one classical conditioning experiment is to accustom subjects to blink when they are given a puff of air. Other researchers have used brain scans, including positron emission tomography PET scans, to learn how people process and retain information.



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From these studies, it seems the prefrontal cortex is involved. In one study, participants had to complete two different tasks: either looking for the letter a in words considered a perceptual task or categorizing a noun as either living or non-living considered a semantic task Kapur et al.

Participants were then asked which words they had previously seen. Recall was much better for the semantic task than for the perceptual task. According to PET scans, there was much more activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex in the semantic task. In another study, encoding was associated with left frontal activity, while retrieval of information was associated with the right frontal region Craik et al. There also appear to be specific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine Myhrer, There continues to be discussion and debate among researchers as to which neurotransmitter plays which specific role Blockland, Repeated activity by neurons leads to increased neurotransmitters in the synapses and more efficient and more synaptic connections.

This is how memory consolidation occurs. It is also believed that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is called arousal theory Christianson, For example, strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory; therefore, our memory for an emotional event is usually better than our memory for a non-emotional event.

When humans and animals are stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps them remember the stressful event McGaugh, This is clearly evidenced by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon. A flashbulb memory is an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event [link].